Location

North Italy, indicating general location of site in the 
Apennine foothills south of the Po plains (Prov. Piacenza)

The observations have been made in the wooded hill landscape around the head of a river valley in the northern Apennines.  The main village in the upper basin is at around 600m; ridges bounding the upper valley are at 900-950m elevation, rising to a cluster of rocky peaks at >1300m. Many small and strongly seasonal streams (torrente) drain the higher ground around the valley head and feed into the river that flows northeast out of the hills to join the Po some 40 kms away down in the plains.

A mosaic of small meadows and arable fields bordered by hedgerows and copses extends from lower levels close to the river up to around 700m, sometimes on remarkably steep slopes, and sometimes to higher elevation.  Deciduous woodland covers the higher ground and is slowly reclaiming many upper fields as these fall out of regular use.

The woodland (primarily Beech Fagus sylvatica with Oak Quercus spp., also Hornbeam Carpinus betulus, Hop-hornbeam Ostrya carpinifolia and others) is managed at artisanal level for fuelwood production on a system similar to 'coppice with standards' in Britain.  Only small areas are harvested in any one year, in patches often much less than one hectare, and the rotation period is typically at least 20 years.  This type of woodland use means that very large and old individual trees are infrequent, and that ascending trunks tend to be numerous and close together, for human observers limiting movement and visibility.